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1Department of Medical Research, Tungs’ Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
2Department of Pharmacology, Chung Shan Medical University School of Medicine, Taichung, Taiwan
3Department of Pharmacy, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
4Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
5Department of Education and Research, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
6Department of Thoracic Surgery, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
7School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
8Superintendent Office, Tungs’ Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
9Department of Post-Baccalaureate Medicine, National Chung Hsing University College of Medicine, Taichung, Taiwan
© 2023, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
DATA AVAILABILITY
All data generated or examined during this research are incorporated within this article.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
This study was supported by research grants from National Science and Technology Council of Taiwan (NSTC 111-2,314-B-040 -008; 109-2,320-B-040-MY3). Tungs’ Taichung MetroHarbor Hospital (grant No. TTMHH-R1120,009), the National Chung Hsing University and Chung Shan Medical University (NCHUCSMU-11,110), and the Chung Shan Medical University Hospital (CSH-2,022-C-028).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Luo CW, Kuan YH, Lin FCF, Tsai SCS. Data curation: Kuan YH, Chen WY, Chen CJ. Formal analysis: Luo CW, Lin FCF, Tsai SCS. Funding acquisition: Chen WY, Kuan YH, Lin FCF, Tsai SCS. Methodology: Luo CW, Kuan YH. Project administration: Kuan YH, Lin FCF, Tsai SCS. Visualization: Luo CW, Chen WY, Chen CJ. Writing – original draft: Luo CW, Chen WY, Chen CJ. Writing – review & editing: Kuan YH, Lin FCF, Tsai SCS.
PM2.5 exposure level | n (%) |
Distribution of PM2.5 (μg/m3) |
p-value1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | Q1 | Median | Q3 | ||||
Parkinson’s disease (follow-up: 42.42±16.79 mo) | 0.048 | ||||||
Normal level | 13 (9.5) | 940.96±321.74 | 663.57 | 1,023.57 | 1,138.76 | ||
1.0 WHO level | 80 (58.4) | 1,315.02±590.59 | 807.72 | 1,354.78 | 1,735.38 | ||
1.5 WHO level | 37 (27.0) | 1,582.35±702.32 | 1,073.75 | 1,426.56 | 2,066.99 | ||
2.0 WHO level | 7 (5.1) | 2,197.08±179.38 | 2,007.95 | 2,276.40 | 2,375.88 | ||
Non-Parkinson’s disease (follow-up: 42.50±16.60 mo) | |||||||
Normal level | 54 (9.8) | 778.54± 289.57 | 578.25 | 834.12 | 967.49 | ||
1.0 WHO level | 356 (65.0) | 1,310.19±586.53 | 815.17 | 1,279.43 | 1,736.23 | ||
1.5 WHO level | 130 (23.7) | 1,723.57±683.53 | 1,147.51 | 1,746.72 | 2,291.85 | ||
2.0 WHO level | 8 (1.5) | 2,220.99±129.18 | 2,148.92 | 2,226.65 | 2,326.14 |
Characteristics | Non-PD (n=548) | PD (n=137) | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | ||||
Female | 228 (41.6) | 57 (41.6) | >0.999 | |
Male | 320 (58.4) | 80 (58.4) | ||
Age | ||||
Mean±SD | 71.99±10.00 | 72.41±10.45 | 0.143 | |
Low income | ||||
Yes | 366 (46.4) | 103 (52.3) | 0.111 | |
No | 422 (53.5) | 94 (47.7) | ||
Urbanization level | ||||
Highly urbanized | 210 (26.6) | 34 (24.8) | 0.142 | |
Moderate urbanization | 228 (28.9) | 39 (28.5) | ||
Emerging town | 169 (21.4) | 20 (14.6) | ||
General town | 106 (13.4) | 20 (14.6) | ||
Aging towns | 10 (1.3) | 9 (6.6) | ||
Agrarian towns | 40 (5.1) | 10 (7.3) | ||
Remote township | 25 (3.2) | 5 (3.6) | ||
Season | ||||
Born in spring | 122 (15.5) | 36 (18.3) | 0.318 | |
Diagnosed in winter | 119 (15.1) | 33 (16.7) | 0.550 | |
Comorbidities | ||||
Diabetes | 170 (21.6) | 56 (28.4) | 0.028 | |
Hypertension | 389 (49.4) | 105 (53.3) | 0.187 | |
Ischemic stroke | 22 (2.8) | 8 (4.1) | 0.350 | |
Fracture | 126 (16.0) | 30 (15.2) | 0.785 | |
Depression | 14 (1.8) | 6 (3.0) | 0.256 | |
Anemia | 91 (11.5) | 33 (16.7) | 0.042 | |
Sleep disturbances | 211 (26.8) | 65 (33.0) | 0.893 | |
Malignant disease | 83 (10.5) | 20 (10.1) | 0.873 | |
Alzheimer’s disease | 11 (1.4) | 3 (1.5) | 0.318 |
PM2.5 exposure level | n (%) | Distribution of PM2.5 (μg/m3) |
p-value |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean±SD | Q1 | Median | Q3 | ||||
Parkinson’s disease (follow-up: 42.42±16.79 mo) | 0.048 | ||||||
Normal level | 13 (9.5) | 940.96±321.74 | 663.57 | 1,023.57 | 1,138.76 | ||
1.0 WHO level | 80 (58.4) | 1,315.02±590.59 | 807.72 | 1,354.78 | 1,735.38 | ||
1.5 WHO level | 37 (27.0) | 1,582.35±702.32 | 1,073.75 | 1,426.56 | 2,066.99 | ||
2.0 WHO level | 7 (5.1) | 2,197.08±179.38 | 2,007.95 | 2,276.40 | 2,375.88 | ||
Non-Parkinson’s disease (follow-up: 42.50±16.60 mo) | |||||||
Normal level | 54 (9.8) | 778.54± 289.57 | 578.25 | 834.12 | 967.49 | ||
1.0 WHO level | 356 (65.0) | 1,310.19±586.53 | 815.17 | 1,279.43 | 1,736.23 | ||
1.5 WHO level | 130 (23.7) | 1,723.57±683.53 | 1,147.51 | 1,746.72 | 2,291.85 | ||
2.0 WHO level | 8 (1.5) | 2,220.99±129.18 | 2,148.92 | 2,226.65 | 2,326.14 |
Variables | Parkinson’s disease | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|
PM2.5 level (reference: Q1 level) | |||
1.0 WHO level | 0.947 (0.474, 1.892) | 0.877 | |
1.5 WHO level | 1.200 (0.570, 2.528) | 0.631 | |
2.0 WHO level | 4.091 (1.180, 14.188) | 0.026 | |
Sex (reference: female) | |||
Male | 1.086 (0.720, 1.638) | 0.693 | |
Age | 0.997 (0.977, 1.019) | 0.812 | |
Low-income (reference: no) | |||
Yes | 1.383 (0.871, 2.196) | 0.170 | |
Urbanization level (reference: highly urbanized) | |||
Moderate urbanization | 0.759 (0.434, 1.327) | 0.334 | |
Emerging town | 0.571 (0.301, 1.083) | 0.086 | |
General town | 0.687 (0.348, 1.355) | 0.279 | |
Aging towns | 2.333 (0.868, 6.268) | 0.093 | |
Agrarian towns | 0.957 (0.400, 2.293) | 0.922 | |
Remote township | 0.674 (0.229, 1.986) | 0.474 | |
Season (reference: no seasonal variation) | |||
Born in the spring | 1.354 (0.862, 2.128) | 0.188 | |
Diagnosed in winter | 1.212 (0.764, 1.922) | 0.414 | |
Comorbidities (reference: without) | |||
Diabetes | 1.458 (0.966, 2.201) | 0.072 | |
Hypertension | 1.240 (0.763, 2.015) | 0.386 | |
Ischemic stroke | 1.438 (0.604, 3.423) | 0.412 | |
Fracture | 0.910 (0.561, 1.477) | 0.703 | |
Depression | 1.676 (0.603, 4.661) | 0.322 | |
Anemia | 1.606 (0.998, 2.584) | 0.051 | |
Sleep disturbances | 1.221 (0.813, 1.834) | 0.336 | |
Malignant disease | 0.988 (0.568, 1.719) | 0.965 | |
Alzheimer’s disease | 0.873 (0.227, 3.352) | 0.843 |
Values are presented as number (%). COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; PD, Parkison’s disease; SD, standard deviation.
COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; PM2.5, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm; SD, standard deviation; WHO, World Health Organization. Chi-square test.
Values are presented as adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval). PM2.5, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm; WHO, World Health Organization. Adjustment for sex, age, low-income, urbanization level, comorbidities.