Figure 1Estimated distribution of sodium intake in Korean women and men.
Figure 2
The association between frequency of eating out and low-sodium intake by total energy intake*.
*Adjusted for sex, age, education, number of family members, household income, occupation, total energy intake (as a continuous variable), alcohol drinking, frequency of eating out, and hypertension management status.
Table 1Characteristics of study population (n=14,539)
Variable |
|
Participants |
Estimated in population |
Sex |
Women |
8,855 (60.9) |
16,310,414 (54.6) |
|
Men |
5,684 (39.1) |
13,545,469 (45.4) |
Age (yr) |
≥70 |
2,252 (15.5) |
2,855,980 (9.6) |
|
60-69 |
2,492 (17.1) |
3,371,828 (11.3) |
|
50-59 |
2,484 (17.1) |
5,034,910 (16.9) |
|
40-49 |
2,842 (19.5) |
6,744,018 (22.6) |
|
20-39 |
4,469 (30.7) |
11,849,146 (39.7) |
Education (yr) |
≤6 |
4,451 (30.9) |
6,491,595 (21.9) |
|
7-9 |
1,689 (11.7) |
3,239,359 (10.9) |
|
10-12 |
4,759 (33.0) |
11,418,848 (38.6) |
|
≥13 |
3,525 (24.4) |
8,451,486 (28.6) |
Family member (n) |
1 |
1,124 (7.3) |
1,748,552 (5.9) |
|
2 |
3,874 (25.1) |
5,970,198 (20.1) |
|
3 |
3,499 (22.7) |
7,282,805 (24.4) |
|
≥4 |
6,923 (44.9) |
14,774,456 (49.6) |
Household income |
≤ 24th percentile |
3,120 (22.0) |
4,821,325 (16.6) |
|
25-49th percentile |
3,535 (24.9) |
7,297,549 (25.1) |
|
50-74th percentile |
3,728 (26.3) |
8,278,073 (28.5) |
|
≥ 75th percentile |
3,786 (26.7) |
8,636,279 (29.7) |
Occupation |
Managers and professionals |
1,458 (11.1) |
3,636,872 (13.6) |
|
Clerical support workers |
923 (7.0) |
2,313,864 (8.6) |
|
Service and sales workers |
1,704 (13.0) |
3,933,077 (14.7) |
|
Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers |
1,506 (11.5) |
1,714,886 (6.4) |
|
Craft, plant or machine operators and assemblers |
1,225 (9.3) |
3,186,674 (11.9) |
|
Elementary occupations |
1,261 (9.6) |
2,499,584 (9.3) |
|
Unemployed (including students and housewives) |
5,041 (38.4) |
9,500,600 (35.5) |
Total energy intake |
≤ 24th percentile |
3,663 (25.2) |
6,767,043 (22.7) |
|
25-49th percentile |
3,664 (25.2) |
7,151,055 (24.0) |
|
50-74th percentile |
3,643 (25.1) |
7,554,263 (25.3) |
|
≥ 75th percentile |
3,569 (24.5) |
8,383,522 (28.1) |
Alcohol drinking |
Nondrinker |
2,295 (15.9) |
3,688,639 (12.5) |
|
Drinker |
12,139 (84.1) |
25,921,613 (87.5) |
Frequency of eating out |
<1 / mo |
2,423 (16.7) |
6,735,104 (22.6) |
|
1-3 / mo |
5,327 (36.7) |
11,538,217 (38.7) |
|
1-6 / wk |
3,937 (27.1) |
7,182,845 (24.1) |
|
≥1 / d |
2,840 (19.5) |
4,382,887 (14.7) |
Hypertension manage- |
Hypertension with comorbidity* |
458 (3.2) |
664,198 (2.3) |
ment status |
Hypertension with treatment |
2,259 (15.7) |
3,569,276 (12.1) |
|
Hypertension without treatment |
1,638 (11.4) |
3,327,677 (11.3) |
|
Prehypertension |
3,451 (24.0) |
7,321,253 (24.8) |
|
Normotension |
6,582 (45.7) |
14,619,850 (49.6) |
Sodium intake (mg/d) |
≤ 2,000 |
2,016 (13.9) |
3,559,822 (11.9) |
|
>2,000 |
12,523 (86.1) |
26,296,061 (88.1) |
Table 2Mean sodium intake according to factors studied
Variable |
Sodium intake (mg/d) |
Mean (95% confidence interval) |
Sex |
|
Women |
4,044 (3,976-4,113) |
Men |
5,718 (5,621-5,815) |
Age (yr) |
|
≥70 |
3,587 (3,452-3,722) |
60-69 |
4,407 (4,264-4,550) |
50-59 |
4,959 (4,807-5,111) |
40-49 |
5,266 (5,147-5,385) |
20-39 |
4,880 (4,781-4,978) |
Education (yr) |
|
≤6 |
4,087 (3,980-4,193) |
7-9 |
4,861 (4,693-5,028) |
10-12 |
5,014 (4,911-5,117) |
≥13 |
5,060 (4,958-5,162) |
Family member (n) |
|
1 |
4,306 (4,080-4,533) |
2 |
4,652 (4,518-4,787) |
3 |
4,805 (4,684-4,927) |
≥4 |
4,920 (4,834-5,007) |
Household income |
|
≤ 24th percentile |
4,153 (4,031-4,275) |
25-49th percentile |
4,736 (4,619-4,854) |
50-74th percentile |
5,055 (4,930-5,179) |
≥ 75th percentile |
5,022 (4,913-5,132) |
Occupation |
|
Managers and professionals |
5,296 (5,124-5,467) |
Clerical support workers |
5,400 (5,204-5,595) |
Service and sales workers |
4,872 (4,707-5,037) |
Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers |
5,010 (4,778-5,241) |
Craft, plant or machine operators and assemblers |
5,821 (5,643-5,998) |
Elementary occupations |
4,801 (4,610-4,993) |
Unemployed (including students and housewives) |
4,213 (4,116-4,310) |
Total energy intake |
|
≤ 24th percentile |
2,814 (2,746-2,882) |
25-49th percentile |
4,006 (3,920-4,092) |
50-74th percentile |
5,114 (5,014-5,214) |
≥ 75th percentile |
6,810 (6,678-6,941) |
Alcohol drinking |
|
Nondrinker |
4,075 (3,925-4,224) |
Drinker |
4,911 (4,843-4,979) |
Frequency of eating out |
|
<1 / mo |
3,929 (3,791-4,067) |
1-3 / mo |
4,373 (4,264-4,483) |
1-6 / wk |
4,992 (4,891-5,092) |
≥1 / d |
5,510 (5,388-5,632) |
Hypertension management status |
|
Hypertension with comorbidity* |
3,898 (3,646-4,150) |
Hypertension with treatment |
4,431 (4,272-4,590) |
Hypertension without treatment |
5,042 (4,864-5,219) |
Prehypertension |
5,114 (4,997-5,232) |
Normotension |
4,734 (4,648-4,819) |
Table 3Factors associated with a low-sodium diet (≤ 2,000 mg/day)
Variable |
|
Low-sodium diet n (%) |
Unadjusted OR (95% CI) |
Adjusted* OR (95% CI) |
Sex |
Women |
1,647 (18.6) |
3.85 (3.34-4.43) |
1.55 (1.28-1.89) |
|
Men |
369 (6.5) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Age (yr) |
≥70 |
616 (27.4) |
3.39 (2.90-3.97) |
1.13 (0.83-1.53) |
|
60-69 |
392 (15.7) |
1.56 (1.31-1.86) |
0.78 (0.59-1.04) |
|
50-59 |
314 (12.6) |
1.17 (0.98-1.40) |
0.88 (0.68-1.15) |
|
40-49 |
236 (8.3) |
0.75 (0.63-0.90) |
0.63 (0.50-0.79) |
|
20-39 |
458 (10.2) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Education (yr) |
≤6 |
1,005 (22.6) |
2.97 (2.51-3.51) |
0.98 (0.71-1.34) |
|
7-9 |
220 (13.0) |
1.48 (1.19-1.84) |
0.96 (0.69-1.32) |
|
10-12 |
469 (9.9) |
1.16 (0.97-1.38) |
0.83 (0.66-1.04) |
|
≥13 |
293 (8.3) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Family member (n) |
1 |
307 (27.3) |
2.37 (1.94-2.89) |
1.31 (1.04-1.66) |
|
2 |
610 (15.8) |
1.45 (1.26-1.68) |
1.14 (0.95-1.38) |
|
3 |
450 (12.9) |
1.15 (0.98-1.34) |
1.19 (0.98-1.44) |
|
≥4 |
745 (10.8) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Household income |
≤ 24th percentile |
689 (22.1) |
2.42 (2.03-2.88) |
1.13 (0.88-1.45) |
|
25-49th percentile |
481 (13.6) |
1.42 (1.20-1.68) |
1.07 (0.87-1.32) |
|
50-74th percentile |
408 (10.9) |
1.10 (0.93-1.30) |
1.04 (0.85-1.28) |
|
≥ 75th percentile |
369 (9.7) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Occupation |
Managers and professionals |
112 (7.7) |
0.35 (0.28-0.45) |
0.84 (0.62-1.13) |
|
Clerical support workers |
50 (5.4) |
0.26 (0.18-0.3б) |
0.57 (0.39-0.83) |
|
Service and sales workers |
189 (11.1) |
0.54 (0.44-0.66) |
0.92 (0.73-1.17) |
|
Skilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers |
221 (14.7) |
0.70 (0.57-0.86) |
0.94 (0.74-1.21) |
|
Craft, plant or machine operators and assemblers |
65 (5.3) |
0.21 (0.16-0.28) |
0.77 (0.54-1.00) |
|
Elementary occupations |
163 (12.9) |
0.61 (0.49-0.77) |
0.85 (0.66-1.12) |
|
Unemployed (including students and housewives) |
943 (18.7) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Total energy intake |
≤ 24th percentile |
1,334 (36.4) |
44.53 (31.93-62.09) |
25.82 (18.08-36.89) |
|
25-49th percentile |
461 (12.6) |
10.75 (7.65-15.10) |
719 (5.01-10.31) |
|
50-74th percentile |
165 (4.5) |
3.43 (2.39-4.91) |
2.58 (1.75-3.80) |
|
≥ 75th percentile |
56 (1.6) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Alcohol drinking |
Nondrinker |
522 (22.8) |
2.16 (1.89-2.47) |
1.09 (0.92-1.28) |
|
Drinker |
1,464 (12.1) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Frequency of eating |
< 1 / mo |
723 (29.8) |
5.15 (4.14-6.42) |
2.01 (1.51-2.67) |
out |
1-3 / mo |
606 (11.4) |
2.96 (2.39-3.67) |
1.51 (1.16-1.97) |
|
1-6 / wk |
540 (13.7) |
1.70 (1.36-2.13) |
1.27 (0.98-1.64) |
|
≥1 / d |
145 (5.1) |
1.00 |
1.00 |
Hypertension |
Hypertension with comorbidity†
|
102 (22.3) |
2.32 (1.77-3.04) |
1.17 (0.78-1.75) |
management status |
Hypertension with treatment |
432 (19.1) |
1.67 (1.44-1.94) |
1.05 (0.85-1.29) |
|
Hypertension without treatment |
246 (15.0) |
1.09 (0.91-1.30) |
1.18 (0.95-1.48) |
|
Prehypertension |
435 (12.6) |
0.96 (0.83-1.10) |
1.13 (0.94-1.35) |
|
Normotension |
769 (11.7) |
1.00 |
1.00 |